3> 



rgWqo 




BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

NO. 346 

Engineering Series, Vol. e, No. 2, pp. 37-80 



THE STRENGTH OF THE ALLOYS OF NICKEL AND 
COPPER WITH ELECTROLYTIC IRON 



BY 



CHARLES FREDERICK BURGESS, E. E. 

Professor of Applied Electrochemistry 
Tlxe University of Wisconsin 



AND 



JAMES ASTON, Ch. E. 

Instructor in Chemical Engineering 
The University of Wisconsin 



MADISON, WISCONSIN 
March, 1910 

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BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

NO. 346 

Engineering Series, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 37-30 



THE STRENGTH OF THE ALLOYS OP NICKEL AND 
COPPER WITH ELECTROLYTIC IRON 



BY 



CHARLES FREDERICK BURGESS, E. E. 

Professor of Ajiplied Electrochemistry 
The University of Wisconsin 



AXD 



JAMES ASTON, Ch. E. 

Instructor in Chemical Engineering 

The University of Wisconsin 



MADISON, WISCONSIN 
March, 1910 



/o 



312)0 






INTRODUCTION 



Of the properties of binary alloys of iron with the common 
metals comparatively little is known. This is attributed to the 
fact that pure iron with which to alloy copper or nickel, or tin, 
or others of the metallic elements, has been a rare laboratory 
product, and interest has been directed, naturally, to alloys 
made from commercial materials. 

Based upon the discovery of a simple method of refining iron 
electrolytic ally, an extensive line of laboratory investigation 
was begun five years ago in the Applied Electrochemistry Lab- 
oratory of the University of "Wisconsin, and has been carried on 
almost without interruption since that time. This investiga- 
tion has consisted in the production and study of the properties 
of alloys of iron, eliminating as far as possible the common im- 
purities, sulphur, phosphorus, silicon, manganese and carbon. 

This work has been conducted through facilities afforded by 
the College of Engineering of the University of Wisconsin and 
through grants from the Carnegie Institution of Washington. 

Prom the large amount of data and information derived 
from this investigation, a small portion, dealing with the alloys 
of copper and nickel with iron, is presented in this bulletin. 
This selection of material has been made on account of the in- 
teresting and possibly important influence of small percentages 
of copper and of nickel on the properties of iron. 

It is appreciated by no one more than by the authors that lab- 
oratory experiments carried out on the small scale which has 
been necessary here, can by no means embody all the factors at- 
tendant upon large scale production, and the conclusions arrived 
at can be only suggestive when applied to commercial produc- 
tion of alloys. 

[39] 



4 INTRODUCTION 

The study of iron alloys of the degree of purity which we 
have attained is not alone of scientific interest, since recent im- 
provements in commercial materials make it possible to secure 
remarkably pure iron at reasonable cost. 

The fact which impresses itself most emphatically upon one 
who undertakes to study the properties of iron alloys, is that 
Tie has an unlimited field to deal with and one which has not 
rjeen cultivated intensively or even superficially. 

Not only are there new alloys to be produced, but much of 
the older work on iron and steel, now considered as on a fairly 
settled basis, can be repeated with profit in the light of a mod- 
ern knowledge as to the influence on the properties of material, 
of variations in heat treatment, and other factors. 

In presenting this bulletin, the writer acknowledges indebt- 
edness to numerous of his colleagues who have assisted in this 
work, and especially, to Mr. Carl Hambuechen, who worked out 
the details for refining iron electrolytically, to Dr. Oliver P. 
Watts and Mr. Otto Kowalke, who conducted the laboratory 
work of this investigation for two years, and to Mr. James As- 
ton who as joint author has done much more than his share in 
writing this report on the alloys of nickel and copper with iron. 

Charles F. Burgess, 
Professor of Chemical Engineering. 



[40] 



THE STRENGTH OE THE: ALLOYS OE NICKEL AND 
COPPER WITH ELECTROLYTIC IRON 



Electrolytic Iron 

The basis of the alloys dealt with here is iron of a high de- 
gree of purity, obtained by double electrodeposition. In the 
first refining, high grade Swedish bar iron is used as anode 
material, and the metal is deposited upon both sides of a sheet 
lead cathode. These cathodes are then used as anodes in a sec- 
ond set of tanks, and a double refined product is obtained upon 
a sheet aluminum cathode. This electrolytic iron is stripped 
off in sheets y± inch to % inch in thickness about 10 inches 
square, and is broken up for use in the crucibles. 

The character of deposited material is indicated in the fol- 
lowing table. The analyses given in the first three columns are- 
those of Messrs. Booth, Garrett and Blair, of Philadelphia. Also, 
all of the analytical work on the alloys proper, including those 
appearing later in this discussion, are the work of the above 
laboratory, and acknowledgment is due for their liberality and 
interest in the work. The most recent analysis of the double 
refined iron is given in the last column, and was reported by 
Mr. Alvan C. Davis, of Edgeworth, Pa. 





Swedish 
Anode. 


Single 
Refined. 


Double 
Refined. 


Double 
Refined. 


Carbon : 


0.260 
0.007 
0.109 
0.007 
0.021 


0.013 
0.007 
0.003 
0.020 
None. 


0.012 

None. 

0.013 

0.004 

None. 


0.000 


Sulplm 


0.003 


Silicon 


0.002 or less. 


Phosphorus 


0.003 


Manganese 


0.020 






Iron (difference) 


0.404 
95.59(5 


0.043 
99.957 


0.029 
99.971 


0.028 
99.972 



[41] 



Q BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

The analyses of the final product differ somewhat in the per- 
centages of the various impurities found. Whether this is due 
to the difference of the material at the different times of samp- 
ling, or to the limiting error of the analytical method in detect- 
ing the small percentages actually found, is problematical. How- 
ever, the initial product used in the preparation of the alloys 
may be considered of negligible impurity, with -an iron content 
of 99.97 per cent. 

Preparation of Alloys 

In the preparation of the alloys, the brittle electrolytic iron 
was broken into small pieces, and the pre-determined amounts 
needed for each charge, together with the addition elements, 
were weighed out. The charges were placed in specially pre- 
pared magnesia crucibles, which were in turn protected by a 
graphite jacket. The crucibles were buried in an electric fur- 
nace of the resistor type; the charge being prevented from con- 
tamination by a magnesia lid luted on the crucible, and a graph- 
ite cover for the jacket. 

The charges were brought to fusion, and held at this tem- 
perature for a few hours after which the current was cut off 
from the furnace and the latter was allowed to cool down. There 
was no agitation of the charge, the resulting allo}^ being en- 
tirely due to diffusion of the elements. The ingots weighed 
about 500 grams (1 lb.) 

In spite of every precaution, there was some absorption of 
carbon by the charge. There is every indication that this was 
due to the interaction between the iron and the carbon monox- 
ide furnace atmosphere, whereby carbon was set free by the re- 
action Fe + CO = FeO + C, and then taken up by the iron 
l>y cementation. The amount absorbed varied somewhat with 
the conditions of the melt, and probably also with the nature of 
the alloying element. Numerous analyses, however, showed the 
amount to be well under 0.10 per cent; sulphur, silicon, phos- 
phorus and manganese are negligible. A charge of electrolytic 
iron melted into an ingot and forged under the same conditions 
employed in the preparation of the alloys showed by analysis 
carbon 0.047. sulphur 0.005, silicon 0.062, phosphorus 0.016, 
manganese 0.0. 

[42] ■ 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COPPER-IRON ALLOYS 7 

In the tests, therefore, the properties observed may be ascribed 
to the addition elements. 

The ingots were heated in a forge fire and drawn ont under a 
steam hammer into rods about % inch in diameter and 20 inches 
long. These rods were cut into appropriate lengths and ma- 
chined for the tensile strength tests into bars approximating 0.3 
to 0.4 inch in diameter over a free length of 2 inches. Qualita- 
tive observations were made of forgeability and of hardness in 
machining. 

An equal number of samples were reserved for testing as 
forged and after annealing at 900° C. The tests were made 
upon a Riehle 1,000,000 pound power-driven machine. The load 
was applied very slowly, and the elastic limit, or rather, the 
yield point, was determined by means of dividers, being taken 
as that load at which a perceptible stretch occurred in a marked 
2-inch length of the bar. This was checked by the drop of the 
beam. In the later tests, multiple dividers were used, enabling 
the yield point to be observed very closely, as well as the elon- 
gation at this point. The data recorded included the load at 
the yield point, and the maximum necessary to rupture the bar ; 
also the elongation in two inches and the reduction of area at 
the fracture. 

This particular discussion may be divided into three general 
parts — (1) the nickel-iron series ; (2) the copper-iron series ; (3) 
& series with iron alloyed with both nickel and copper. 

NICKEL-IRON ALLOYS 

Much has been written regarding certain nickel steels for com- 
mercial usage and there has been considerable investigation of 
these particular alloys. Also, there is much literature on the 
metallography and the theory of nickel steels, with which phase 
this paper is not particularly concerned. There is comparatively 
little published data of research, especially systematic research 
on the effect of the addition of varying percentages of nickel to 
steels of otherwise comparable compositions. 

Of the latter, to which the present paper is largely supple- 
mentary or correlative, may be mentioned the following: 

Between 1892 and 1902, the Prussian Society for the Encour- 

[43] 



g BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

agement of Industry published several reports dealing with the 
mechanical properties of the nickel-iron alloys (Berichte des 
Sonderausschiisses fur Eisen-Nickel Legierungen. 1892-1902). 

E. A. Hadfield (Inst. Civ. Engrs., 1898, Volume CXXXVIII r 
page 1) gives data of a very complete study of a series of nickel- 
iron alloys, covering the mechanical and physical properties. The- 
nickel varies from to 50 per cent, with other impurities as fol- 
lows: C, 0.13 to 0.23 per cent; Si, 0.20 to 0.38; S, 0.08 to 0.11; 
P, 0.05 to 0.09 ; Mn, 0.65 to 1.08. 

L. Guillet (Bui. Soc. d'Encour pour l'lndustrie Nationale r 
May, 1903) publishes the results on three series of steels with 
nickel from 2 to 30 per cent, manganese low and carbon about 
0.12, 0.22 and 0.82 per cent in the several series. The work in- 
cludes the mechanical tests and the metallographic study with 
a view of finding the relation between the physical properties 
and the structure. 

Carpenter, Hadfield and Longmuir (7th Report, Alloys Re- 
search Committee, Inst. Mech. Engrs., Vol. 2, 1905, page 857) 
give the data of a thorough investigation of a series of alloys 
with nickel from per cent to 20 per cent, carbon 0.41 to 0.52 ; 
manganese, 0.79 to 1.03. This research was intended as a sup- 
plement to Hadfield 's work mentioned above, the steels being^ 
practically of the same composition, except that there was an 
increase of the carbon content from a mild steel proportion of" 
about 0.20 per cent to that of a medium steel with 0.45 per cent. 

In the present research the effort has been to determine the 
effect of additions of varying percentages of nickel to iron in 
the absence of other impurities, especially carbon. As men- 
tioned heretofore, the iron is of such purity that the results 
observed may be ascribed to the nickel addition alone. The- 
added nickel was electrolytic material of high grade. 

Analysis 

Ingots were prepared of all compositions from to 100 per 
cent of nickel, but the mechanical tests here enumerated are con- 
fined largely to the range of per cent to 20 per cent of nickel. 
The analyses given below are of a series of random selection 
which is representative of the entire range. 

[44] 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COPPER-IRON ALLOYS 



Analyses. 




As might be expected from the close analogy of the properties 
of nickel and iron, the agreement of the analytical results with 
the percentage of nickel added to the charge, is exceedingly close 
and when it is considered that the samples for analysis were from 
turnings of test bars after the ingots had been forged into rods, 
it maj r be taken as evidence of the perfect alloying of iron and 
nickel and the entire absence of segregation in the ingot. 

Forging 



Ingots were generally sound and the lower percentages forged 
about the same as iron and at normal temperatures. In fact r 
there was no trouble in forging any of the alloys within the 
range of to 20 per cent of nickel. Alloys of 25, 26, 28, 35 r 
50 and 75 per cent of nickel forged without special difficulty, 
although in an earlier trial one ingot with 75 per cent smashed. 
A 100 per cent nickel was not forgeable. In later tests an in- 
got of 30 per cent nickel smashed and one of 34 per cent was 
partially destroyed. With extreme care and high welding heats, 
and with the liberal use of flux a good bar was drawn out of an 
85 per cent ingot, A high heat is probably necessary for all 
of the high nickel alloj^s. 

[45] 



20 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

The discrepancies noted in the forgeability might be due to 
oxidation such as Hadfield experienced, and which caused such 
red shortness that he was compelled to use manganese and alum- 
inum as deoxidizers ; or there might be a critical range at about 
34 per cent of nickel at a composition corresponding to a defi- 
nite compound of Fe 2 Ni. It is at about this composition that 
the greatest difficulty is experienced in forging, and other meas- 
urements of various characters tend to support this supposition 
of a compound. 

Welding 

There was no difficulty in welding low nickel bars during forg- 
ing. The high nickel alloys, including one of 85 per cent nickel, 
which tended to crumble at lower heats, welded nicely at very 
high temperatures of working and with the liberal use of borax 
to prevent oxidation. Bars of all percentages of nickel were 
welded in the electric welder, although some failures were noted 
hetween 18 per cent and 35 per cent of nickel. These welds 
were not subjected to tests other than those indicated by grind- 
ing the juncture and testing with the hands. 

Hardness 

The hardness tests are such qualitative results as were noted 
in the machining, sawing and filing necessary in preparing the 
test bars. In the unannealed condition, working was easy for 
alloys up to and including 7 per cent of nickel ; the alloys were 
rather stiff from 8 per cent to 10 per cent, inclusive, and hard be- 
tween 11 per cent and 20 per cent, with the 20 per cent alloy less 
hard than some of those of intermediate compositions. All al- 
loys were machined in the unannealed state with lathe tools, al- 
though this was very difficult in the range between 10 and 20 
per cent of nickel. The higher nickel bars were again soft. 

After annealing there was a somewhat noticeable hardness, 
beginning at about 11 to 13 per cent, but it was not extreme 
in any case, and there was no difficulty in sawing or machining. 



[46] 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COPPER-IRON ALLOYS \\ 

Bending 

These tests were again only qualitative, being the observa- 
tions in breaking bars sawed half through and in the unannealed 
-condition. Alloys from to 2 per cent nickel cracked at a 60° 
angle ; from 3 per cent to 8 per cent, inclusive, at 45° ; 9 to 10 
per cent, at 30°, and from 11 per cent to 20 per cent, inclu- 
sive, the bars broke off short. The fracture changed from a 
fibrous to a granular at about 10 per cent of nickel. 

The above hardness and bending tests are in agreement with 
the tensile tests noted below. 

Tensile Strength Tests 

The summary of results is included in Tables 1 and 2 and in 
Plates I and II. The detailed data are not given; also no rec- 
ords are noted of abnormal results due to defective bars, etc. 

In the summary are given the yield point and ultimate 
strength in pounds per square inch, the percentage of elonga- 
tion in 2 inches, and the percentage of reduction of area at 
fracture. There are also included the maximum, minimum and 
■average values of each of the above items, together with the 
number of samples from which such average is calculated. This 
furnishes an indication of the consistency of the data. In the 
plates, the yield point, the ultimate strength and the elonga- 
tion and the reduction of area for varying percentages of nickel 
are designated by appropriate symbols, and are the values given 
in the tables in the columns of averages. 

"With these points as a guide, smooth curves are drawn in each 
case. With the many factors affecting somewhat the strength 
•of a metal, it is not expected that the points will fall consistently 
on a curve. It is intended merely that the curve will show the 
tendency of the effect of increasing the percentage of nickel in 
the alloy. 

Unannealed 

The results of the tests in the unannealed state are enumerated 
in Table 1 and the general summary is best noted by referring 
to the curves on Plate 1. Between and 8 per cent of nickel 

[47] 



12 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

there is a gradual increase of the ultimate strength and elastic 
limit which are approximately linear functions of the percent- 
age increase of nickel. At a nickel content of 0.25 per cent 
the figures are 66,730 for the ultimate strength and 57,180 for 
the yield point, these values rising to 91,740 lbs. and 70,770 lbs.,, 
respectively, for an increase of nickel to 8 per cent. The elon- 
gation and reduction of area indicate a decrease of ductility be- 
tween and 2 per cent. From this point they rise to a maxi- 
mum at 5 per cent of nickel, above which percentage there is a 
gradual falling off until the composition of 8 per cent of nickel 
is reached. At 5 per cent nickel we note values of 61,030 for 
the elastic limit and 77,150 for the ultimate strength, with the 
high values of 29.2 for the elongation and 65.2 per cent for the 
reduction of area. The elastic ratio, however, is high, being" 
0.83. 

Beyond 8 per cent of nickel there is a decided upward bend 
in the curves for the ultimate strength and elastic limit and a 
corresponding drop in those for the reduction of area and the 
elongation, indicating, therefore, a brittle zone. This is most 
pronounced at 11 per cent of nickel, where the yield point is 
148,240 and the ultimate strength 181,230, while the elongation 
falls off to 7 per cent and the reduction of area to 25.5 per cent. 
On increasing the nickel above 12 per cent there is a return of 
ductility indicated by the gradual rise of the elongation and the 
marked increase of the reduction of area. At 20 per cent nickel 
we have the very high values of elastic limit 115,500, ultimate 
strength 186,000, with the accompanying elongation of 16 per 
cent and reduction of area of 59.5 per cent. The brittle zone 
may be said to extend from 10 per cent to 15 per cent of nickel. 
The data for percentages of nickel above 20, which are not 
plotted, show a still further increase of ductility ; at 50 per cent 
of nickel we have values of elastic limit of 75,700, ultimate 
strength 108.500, elongation 26.5 per cent, reduction of area 
63.77 per cent. 

These facts are in accord with the bending and hardness tests 
noted heretofore where the maximum brittleness lay between 
10 per cent and 20 per cent in bending and the greatest diffi- 
culty in machining was in the same range. 

[48] 



burgess strength of nickel-copper-iron alloys 13 

Annealed 

Results of the tests on the annealed bars are given in Table 2 
•and Plate II. The effect of annealing has been to lower the 
ultimate strength and the elastic limit throughout the entire 
range with the accompanying increase of elongation and reduc- 
tion of area; this, however, without materially altering the gen- 
eral influence of the nickel. We note the same gradual increase 
of maximum stress and yield point over a range which is now 
extended to 10 per cent of nickel instead of 8 per cent. At this 
point the same sharp increase takes place and the elongation 
and reduction of area fall off in accordance. The point of mini- 
mum ductility is now at 13 per cent, where the elongation 
has fallen off to 11.6 per cent and the reduction of area to 34.6 
per cent. The pronounced maximum of strength is now not 
present, the elastic limit of 97.730 and the ultimate strength of 
121,810 being below the maximum values of the tests. At 11 
per cent of nickel, the composition of the former alloy of least 
ductility, the deviations of maximum and minimum values are 
large, lying between extremes of 23 per cent and per cent for 
the elongation and between 65.2 per cent and per cent for the 
reduction of area. 

The brittle zone is quite as pronounced as it was in the unan- 
nealed condition, but is now more limited in extent and may 
"be said to cover the range from 12 per cent to 15 per cent 
of nickel. Above 15 per cent there is the same gradual in- 
crease of elongation and marked rise in the reduction of area, 
but w r e do not note the marked ductility at the 20 per cent nickel 
alloy which was observed for the unannealed bar. 

Comparisons 

The safe values to be assumed for nickel steels of the compo- 
sitions used in commercial practice may be taken from Wad- 
dell's elaborate paper before the American Society of Civil En- 
t gineers in September, 1908. For bridge structures he recom- 
mends a composition of 3% per cent of nickel and 0.38 per cent 
of carbon, with values of elastic limit of 60,000 lbs. per square 
inch, and ultimate strength of 105.000 lbs. per square inch. 

[49] 



14 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

These figures are for sections as rolled, and with a ductility 
somewhat lower than for ordinary steels, as is evidenced by the- 
elongation of 15 per cent for nickel against 27 per cent for car- 
bon steel (in 8 inches) and a reduction of area of 41 per cent 
and 55 per cent, respectively. For a lower carbon content with, 
the same nickel the values become — elastic limit 45,000, ulti- 
mate strength 70,000, elongation 25 per cent; and for the in- 
crease of carbon to 0.45 per cent the elastic limit is taken as- 
65,000, maximum stress 115,000 and the elongation 12 per cent. 

Values noted from our research for an alloy of 3 per cent of 
nickel are — yield point 62,920, ultimate strength 74,860, elon- 
gation (in 2") 24.5 per cent, reduction of area 63.9 per cenc;. 
and for nickel = 4 per cent, the elastic limit is 65,000, maximum 
stress 75,670, elongation 27.8 per cent and the reduction of 
area 66.5 per cent. These values become, after annealing — 
yield point 55,400, ultimate strength 70,670, elongation 27.5 
per cent, reduction of area 67.6 per cent for the allo3 r of 3 per 
cent nickel; and for the nickel content of 4 per cent the elastic- 
limit is 52,100, maximum stress 70,070, elongation 28.4 and re- 
duction of area 66.7. The ultimate strengths are well in ac- 
cord with Waddell's assumptions for low carbon steels, with 
the elastic limit approaching that of his higher carbon materials.. 

Of the other tests recorded it is possible to make direct com- 
parisons with Hadneld's results (Inst. Civ. Engrs. 1888-9 ). 
His alloys had a carbon content from 0.13 per cent to 0.23 per- 
cent and manganese in the appreciable amounts of 0.65 per cent 
to 1.08 per cent. For the alloy of 3.82 per cent of nickel the re- 
sults were as follows : as unannealed, elastic limit 62,700 ; maxi- 
mum stress 82,900 ; elongation 35.8 ; reduction of area 55.6. These 
figures are in very close agreement with the 4 per cent alloy 
of our tests. 

In Guillet's tests, for his low carbon series (C = 0.12) and 
for bars in the unannealed state, the maximum stresses and 
elastic limits are lower throughout than ours for like percentages 
of nickel. For his 5 per cent alloy the elastic limit is 43,200, 
maximum stress 52,800, elongation 25 per cent ; our values are, 
respectively, 64,030, 77,150 and 29.2 per cent. However, the- 
same general influences of the addition of nickel are observed. 

A most interesting comparison is that of the effect of increas- 

[50] 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COPPER-IRON ALLOYS 15 

ing percentages of nickel. The references are to articles men- 
tioned at the beginning of this section of the paper. 

In Hadfield's tests there was a gradual increase of strength 
and a decrease of ductility with the smaller additions of nickel. 
The maximum breaking stresses were at 11 to 16 per cent of 
nickel in the unannealed state with a minimum ductility at 15. & 
per cent of nickel. After annealing the maximum strength is 
at 11.4 per cent of nickel with the lowest ductility at a com- 
position of 9.5 per cent. There is a fair return of ductility 
at about 24 per cent of nickel after passing through the brittle 
zone. 

Guillet's tests were on three series of alloys, each of a dif- 
ferent percentage of carbon, and all with low manganese. He 
found in each series a brittle zone. For the alloys of lowest 
carbon = 0.12 per cent, the lowest minimum ductility was at 
15 per cent of nickel ; for carbon = 0.22 it was at 10 per cent 
nickel ; and for carbon = 0.82 per cent it was at a nickel con- 
tent of 7 per cent. 

In the Report of the Alloys Research Committee, where the 
carbon was that of a medium steel, being from 0.41 to 0.52, and 
the manganese was high (0.79 to 1.03), there was a distinctly 
brittle zone at 4.95 per cent of nickel and extending to 16 per 
cent. From this point there was a recovery of the ductility. 

The results of the present research which are most nearly 
representative of the effect of nickel alone, indicate the same 
brittle zone with the least ductility at 11 per cent of nickel 
in the unannealed state and at 13 per cent after annealing. 

This agrees fairly well with the observations of Hadfield and 
Guillet, to whose materials our compositions are most nearly 
similar. The location of this brittle area can hardly be defi- 
nitely fixed, since differences in impurities and heat treatment 
no doubt affect the composition and the range. 

Conclusions 

As a result of this research, taken in conjunction with the 
other tests enumerated, and of which it is largely confirmatory, 
it may be said that the effect of the addition of nickel to iron is 
as follows: 

[51] 



26 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

1. To increase the strength with a slight decrease of ductil- 
ity in the range of lower nickel content. 

2. Beyond this range the addition of nickel causes a sudden 
increase of strength with a marked decrease of ductility over a 
zone of decided brittleness. 

3. The position of the brittle zone varies with the carbon 
content and probably with a variation in the other impurities, 
such as manganese, if present in appreciable amounts. For a 
pure alloy, where the effect is due to nickel alone, the area may 
be set between 10 per cent and 16 per cent of nickel. The addi- 
tion of carbon places the zone at lower percentages of nickel, be- 
ginning in the neighborhood of about 10 per cent for carbon = 
0.22 per cent and at about 7 per cent nickel for carbon = 0.82 
per cent, where the other impurities are small. It may com- 
mence as low as 5 per cent nickel in medium carbon steels ( C = 
0.44) where the manganese rises to 1 per cent. Accompanying 
this brittleness there is a marked hardening in the material. 

4. Annealing while not greatly affecting the region of the 
brittle zone or the extent of the brittleness, has a tendency + o 
confine the range to more narrow limits. 

5. For percentages of nickel above those of the zone of brit- 
tleness there is a restoration of the ductility and softness. 

IRON-COPPER ALLOYS 

The influence of copper on iron and steel has for long been a 
subject of controversy and contradiction. It is only compara- 
tively recently that the effect has been investigated systemati- 
cally and some of the doubt eliminated. 

The prevalence of appreciable quantities of copper in the ores 
of certain districts makes of value a knowledge of its effect, det- 
rimental or otherwise, when present in small amounts. Also, 
the intimate relation of copper, nickel and iron, and the bene- 
ficial effect of the addition of nickel to iron and steel, creates an 
interest in the influence of larger percentages. 

The older opinion was that copper is deleterious; that its 
chief effect was analogous to that of sulphur in that it rendered 
iron red short and destroyed its welding power. This view was 
taken by many eminent metallurgists, some even contending 

[52] 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COPPER-IRON ALLOYS yj 

"that 0.5 per cent makes steel worthless. Others claimed that the 
influence was greatly exaggerated and instances were cited where 
rolled sections of 0.50 per cent to 0.75 per cent of copper did 
not display red shortness. 

Within recent years more systematic investigations have been 
made to determine the effect of additions of yarying percentages 
of copper to iron and steel. 

Ball and Wigham (Ir. & St. Inst., 1889, No. 1) tested four 
steels with from 0.85 per cent to 7.17 per cent copper and a car- 
bon content varying from 0.10 per cent in the former to 0.71 per 
cent in the latter, and noted an increase of tensile strength and 
a decrease of ductility with, the increase of copper. The bar 
with 7.17 per cent copper w T as red short. Their conclusions were 
that the principal effect of copper was to make steel hard and 
that copper within reasonable limits did not materially affect 
the mechanical properties. 

A. L. Colby (Iron Age, Nov. 30, '99) says that small per- 
centages of copper have no deleterious effect upon the physi- 
cal properties of steel. He cites various steels of about 0.5 
per cent copper in shafts and gun tubes, which meet the re- 
quirements of the United States Navy. It was also used in ship 
plates, passing the usual tests required of carbon steels. These 
steels welded successfully and flanged cold, and there was no red 
shortness in bars or rails with a copper content of 0.39 per cent 
to 0.49 per cent. 

W. Lipin (Stahl u. Eisen, Yol. XX) states that iron with 
copper content up to 3 per cent is readily worked but that there 
is red shortness at 4.7 per cent copper. Between 7 per cent 
to 10 per cent copper the material cracked badly, and fell to 
pieces under the hammer. With an increase of copper up to 
3 per cent the tensile strength increased from 26 tons per square 
inch to 46 tons per square inch, with, a decrease of elongation 
from 27.8 per cent to 13.3 per cent. He also notes that with an 
increase of carbon in the steel the maximum percentages of cop- 
per must be decreased ; also that copper does not affect the weld- 
ing. 

Stead (Ir. & St. Inst., '01, Vol. I.) made a very thorough in- 
vestigation of the influence of copper in steel rails and plates, 
since, he claimed, the general belief that copper was deleterious. 
2 [53] 



Jg BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

was an unjustified prejudice. His article goes fully into the- 
previous work and impressions. He finds that copper between 
0.5 per cent and 1.5 per cent is not detrimental either hot or 
cold; that 2 per cent copper makes steel more liable to be over- 
heated ; that small quantities raise the tenacity and the elastic 
limit and reduce- the elongation, but not greatly, however, for 
small percentages of copper ; also that there is no great liability 
to fracture by shock. 

Papers of Stead and Wigham T±r. & St. Inst., '09, Vol. II) 
and of "Wigham (Ir. & St. Inst., '06, Vol. I) deal with the effect 
of copper in cold wire drawing and come to the conclusion that 
copper up to 0.25 per cent is no detriment in the manufacture 
of the best classes of wire. 

Wigham, in the last article mentioned above, brings out the 
important point that Professor Turner, in the discussion of the 
former article of Stead and "Wigham, says that where copper 
is present in ores it is found in association with sulphur. Con- 
sequently discrepancies in the earlier tests may be due to this 
sulphur and not to the direct effect of the copper. This fact, 
together with that of the increase of red shortness with an in- 
crease of carbon, may explain the differences of opinion result- 
ing from the earlier observations. 

All of the above research was to excuse the presence of the 
copper; to break down a seeming prejudice. An investigation 
with a different object is that of Pierre Breuil, the results of 
which were given in a paper before the Iron and Steel Insti- 
tute (Ir. & St. Inst. '07, No. 2). His effort was to see if there- 
was a beneficial effect due to the addition of copper and was 
suggested by the favorable influence of copper on steels for rail- 
way axles, which was noted on some of the French railroads. It 
is a very extended research, and as the author says, is a sup- 
plement (very much elaborated) to Stead's work, in that the 
results agree. Being the most exhaustive and latest contribution 
to our knowledge of copper steels, we shall have occasion to refer 
to the results frequently throughout this discussion. 

Breuil 's work was carried out on four series of steels, — mild 
steel (C = 0.10 per cent — 0.17 per cent), semi-mild steel (C== 
C.28 per cent — 0.41 per cent) , and hard steel (C = 0.56 per cent 

[54] 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COPPER-IRON ALLOYS 1 O 

j. \s 

— 0.75 per cent) and a final series with about 1 per cent of 
carbon. 

In view of the evidence that the influence of copper varies 
with the amounts of carbon and of sulphur present in the 
steel, and very likely also with the other impurities met with in 
commercial materials, it is of interest to record the results of 
tests where these elements are a minimum. The following dis- 
cussion is of a series of iron-copper alloys made with electrolytic- 
iron and copper as a basis. The preparation of the test sample* 
is described in the introductory chapter of this paper. 

FORGING 

A wide range of alloys of varying copper content was made. 
The observations made in the forging are as follows : Alloys up 
to 2 per cent of copper forge well at low heats. Those from 2 
per cent to 7 per cent will not forge at a low heat, and rather 
poorly at white heat, the ease of workability varying inversely 
as the percentage of copper. From 7 per cent to 75 per cent — 
80 per cent the alloys may be classed as non-forgeable. Between 
80 per cent and 100 per cent they will forge at a fair red heat 
but not at a normal forging heat for iron. 

In the earlier work alloys above 5 per cent could not be- 
forged. However, in later tests, in the trial of many alloys of 
5 per cent to 10 per cent of copper at all heats, it was found 
that with care and a high heat (welding) a 7 per cent bar could 
be forged, or even rarely, an 8 per cent. 

The lower percentages (below 5) will weld easily in forging r 
and some bars of 7 per cent copper were welded while forging. 
All alloys up to 7 per cent copper could be welded in an electric- 
welder. 

Segregation 

The forgeable samples between per cent and 8 per cent of 
copper and a few of the alloys of high copper and low iron were 
made into test bars for investigation of the tensile strength. 
Analyses were not made upon all bars: rather, random samples; 

. [55] 



20 



BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 



of the entire range of composition were tested, with the follow- 
ing results : 

Analyses . 



Mark. 


Gu. added. 


Analysis. 


147B 


0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.0 
0.8 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
4.0 
5.0 
6.0 
7.0 
95.0 


0.019 


158A 


0.202 


158B 


0.422 


158C 


0.592 


158D 




0.804 


147H 


1.006 


147J 


1.510 


158G 


2.005 


1581 


3.990 


158J 


5.070 


158K 


6.160 


147U 


7.050 


86F 


94.340 







As will be seen from the tables, the agreement between the 
added and the actual copper content is exceedingly close. The 
analytical samples were taken from turnings obtained in the 
machining of the' test bars after the forging of the ingots. 
This close agreement after such a method of selection would in- 
dicate an entire lack of segregation ; also that the materials alloy 
very well up to a copper content of 7 per cent. This is in ac- 
cord with the work of earlier investigators. In view of this close 
agreement it may be assumed that the actual copper content of 
the alloys is the same as the added amount. 



Hardness 

The hardness tests are merely qualitative, being observations 
made in the machining, sawing and filing. In machining, the 
alloys with low percentages of copper worked very easily. The 
hardness increased with the increase of copper until at 5 per cent 
to 7 per cent, while it was still possible to turn in the lathe, this 
was done with some difficulty. There were the same evidences 
in the sawing and filing tests, the high copper being classed as 
extremely hard to saw. 

Breuil's investigations show that the hardness does not result 
through a lowering of the points of transition, thus leaving 
the steels in a martensitic state, as might be supposed. The 
structure is a fine pearlite, with a fibrous cementite which is 

[56] 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COPPER-IRON ALLOYS 21 

liberated with increasing copper, and this explains the increasing 
hardness. 

Wedding (Stahl u. Eisen, December, '06) says that copper 
and sulphide of copper prevent the formation of pearlite and 
promote the formation of crystals of cementite. It is due to this 
fact that there is greater hardness of iron when copper and 
sulphur are present. These explanations seem hardly sufficient 
to account for the hardening which we have observed without 
the presence of either carbon or sulphur and we expect to make 
a metallographic study with the hope of throwing a little light 
upon the subject. 

The summary of the results of these tests is given in Tables 
3 and 4, and in Plates III and IV. The detailed data are not 
given ; also no account is taken of bars which showed abnormal 
results, due to flaws, etc. 

In conformity with those of the nickel-iron series, the results 
enumerated are the yield point, the ultimate strength, the per- 
centage of elongation in 2 inches and the percentage of reduc- 
tion of area at fracture. Again, in order to show the con- 
sistency of the data there is also given the maximum and mini- 
mum values for each of the above items, together with the aver- 
age of these items for the number of samples enumerated in a 
separate column. The plates are plotted from the averages of 
the tables and smooth curves drawn to indicate as nearly as 
possible the tendency of the increasing additions of copper. The 
values of the yield point, ultimate strength, elongation and re- 
duction of area are designated as points used in plotting the 
curves by the same symbols used for the nickel alloys. 

Unannealed 

From the curves of- Plate III, it will be noted that the rise in 
the ultimate strength and % the elastic limit is almost a linear 
function of the percentage of copper. The ultimate strength in- 
creases from 61,180 lbs. per sq. in. at 0.1 per cent copper to 
132,400 lbs. at 7 per cent. The yield point rises from 52,580 to 
122,900. There is a corresponding fall in the elongation from 
28% per cent at 0.1 per cent copper to 4 per cent at 7 per cent 
copper. The reduction of area increases slightly from 69.2 per 

[57] 



22 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

cent at 0.1 per cent copper to 72.1 per cent at 0.6 per cent and 
0.8 per cent copper ; from this point it falls off to 7.3 per cent at 
7 per cent of copper. 

From Table III it will be noted that the ratio of maximum and 
minimum values to the average is good, except in certain in- 
stances which are no doubt somewhat abnormal, but not so much 
so as to be rejected from the tables. Also, where there are a suf- 
ficient number of samples for a good average, the results fall well 
in line. The greatest variation is at 3y 2 per cent of copper, but 
here there is only one bar, which is clearly abnormal, with its 
low ultimate strength and elastic limit and its high reduction of 
area. The greatest variations from the curve lie above 4 per cent 
of copper, and this is to be expected, especially in the unannealed 
samples, since here we are almost beyond the limit of satisfactory 
workability. 

The results of these tests indicate a high tensile strength which 
increases with the percentage of copper. The alloys are rather 
brittle as indicated by the elongation, and the reduction of area. 
Also the elastic ratio (ratio of the elastic limit to the ultimate 
strength) is large, varying from 0.86 per cent at 0.1 per cent 
copper to 0.93 at 7 per cent copper. 

Annealed 

The results of annealing are given in Table 4 and Plate IV. 
and the effect is very marked, especially for the higher per- 
centages of copper. There is greater consistency in the results, 
as is to be expected, and the points fall fairly well in line on the 
curves. 

The greatest deviation from the curves is at 2% per cent and 
5% per cent of copper, where there was only one bar of each for 
the test. The maximum and minimum figures of the table are 
not widely different. 

Up to 1 per cent copper there is a marked increase of the 
elastic limit and the ultimate strength with the additions of 
copper and no falling off in the elongation or reduction. In 
fact, the latter increases to a maximum at 0.4 per cent of copper. 
Beyond one per cent the curves bend sharply and become more 
nearly horizontal, being a linear function of the percentage of 

[58] 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COPPER-IRON ALLOYS 



23 



copper. The elongation and reduction of area fall off in ac- 
cordance. 

Between 1% and 7 per cent of copper the elastic limit in- 
creases from 51,570 to 56,950 lbs., the ultimate from 65,720 lbs. 
to 67,900, while there is a decrease in the elongation and the 
reduction of area. Between 0.1 per cent and 1.5 per cent of 
copper the elastic limit rises from 35,570 lbs. to 51,570 lbs; the 
ultimate strength from 54,050 lbs. to 65,720 lbs; while the elon- 
gation and the reduction of area remain about the same. Breuil 
mentions the 4 per cent alloy as worthy of further study, and 
this is no doubt true, since he observes very high values, as in- 
dicated by the following table, where the results are given for 
his mild steel series (C = 0.10 per cent to 0.17 per cent), as 
rolled, and as annealed at 900° C. 



Tensile Strength — Breuil. 



Per cent Cu. 


Yield point 
No. 1 per in. 2 


Ultimate 

stress No. 1 

per in. 2 


Elongation 
Per cent. 


Reduction 
area .per cent. 


TJnannealed: 











0.5 


55. 000 
58. 900 
67,300 
97,600 

35,800 
38, 200 
54, 800 
58,700 
65,000 


66, 800 

70. 200 

88, 700 

109, 500 

54,900 
59. 000 
69, 500 
70,300 
71,500 


25.5 
26.5 
16.0 
13.0 

30.3 
28. 
26.0 
25.0 
22.0 


66 


1.0 


60 


2.0 

4.0 


58 
46 


Annealed: 



63 


0.5 


60 


1.0 


57 


2.0 


58 


4.0 


63 







A comparison of these figures with the results of our researches 
shows a great similarity, and in plotting the figures there is a 
very close agreement. In his 4 per cent alloy as unannealed, to 
which Breuil calls particular attention, there is an elastic limit 
of 97,600, an ultimate strength of 109,500, and an elongation of 
13 per cent and a reduction of area of 46 per cent. In our tests 
the results for corresponding materials are — elastic limit, 
100,560; ultimate strength, 108,640; elongation, 13y 2 per cent; 
reduction of area 45.6 per cent. For the annealed sample, 
Breuil gives elastic limit 65,000 lbs; ultimate strength 71,500, 
elongation 22 per cent, reduction of area 63 per cent. Our re- 

[59] 



24 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

suits are; elastic limit 53,570 lbs., ultimate strength 66,540,. 
elongation 24.8, reduction of area 54.2. In our tests the anneal- 
ing shows a greater effect, resulting in less strength with greater 
ductility; and the same is true in the comparison for all per- 
centages of copper. 

While Breuil lays particular stress on the 4 per cent alloy, our 
results would seem to indicate the greatest value "between 1 per 
cent and 2 per cent for the annealed samples. The very sharp 
rise of the elastic limit and the ultimate strength at this per- 
centage gives values but very little less than those for higher 
copper content, with a lessened cost for the addition element; 
also there is a removal from the region where the forging and 
welding properties are poorer with consequent uncertainties of 
result. Likewise, between 1 per cent and 2 per cent the elastic 
limit and the reduction of area are very high. 

It would hardly be advisable to work with 1 per cent of copper, 
since this is on the edge of the incline, where there is liable to 
be a fall to the lower values obtained with lower percentages of 
copper. At 1% V er cen t we are far enough removed so that the- 
slight differences of composition to be met in practice would not 
bring the material into a dangerous region. Also, the elastic 
ratio of 0.78 is slightly lower than for the 4 per cent alloy, where 
it is 0.81. 

We would have considerable hesitation in bringing forward 
this point without a vast number of tests for confirmation, but 
for the fact that an observation of Breuil's results indicate the 
same condition. He has perhaps noticed this fact, but makes 
no mention of it in his article. As will be seen from the table 
of his results which is given above, there is a sharp increase 
between 0.5 per cent and 1 per cent of copper, where the elastic 
limits are 38,200 and 54,800, respectively, and the ultimate 
strengths 59,000 and 69,500. Again, we note but little change 
in the elongation and reduction of area, Between per cent and 
0.5 per cent, and between 1 per cent and 2 per cent, the change 
is not marked. The fact that two independent investigations give 
this result, seems fairly conclusive of the effect. 

Another fact to be noted in our tests is the marked difference 
between the unannealed and the annealed samples. It would indi- 
cate that there is an intermediate heat treatment which, not beings 

[60] 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COPPER-IRON ALLOYS 25 

so drastic in its effect as our long annealing, would give inter- 
mediate values, and thus approximate the nickel steels. This 
condition might be reached in commercial rolling, where heavier 
masses of metal leave the material in a condition analogous to 
that resulting from a partial anneal. 

To compare the copper-iron with the nickel alloys we may 
again quote Waddell's extensive investigations mentioned previ- 
ously under the nickel-iron series. Repeating this data, we note 
a steel with about 3% per cent nickel, carbon 0.38 per cent, the 
values for which may be taken as: elastic limit 60,000 lbs. per 
sq. in., ultimate strength 105,000 lbs. per sq. in., elastic ratio 
from 0.55 to 0.60. These values are for sections as rolled with- 
out heat treatment and working at a somewhat low ductility, as 
shown by the figures 15 per cent for nickel steel, 27 per cent for 
carbon steel (in 8 inches) and a reduction of area of 41 per cent 
for nickel, compared to 55 per cent for the carbon steels. With 
the carbon reduced to 0.15, the values become: elastic limit 
45,000, ultimate 70,000, elongation 25 per cent; and for (C = 
0.45) the elastic limit is 65,000, the ultimate 115,000 and the elon- 
gation 12 per cent. 

These values are higher than ours for the copper-iron alloys but 
are not in direct comparison. Our own figures for a nickel-iron 
alloy made under the same conditions as the copper-iron series, 
are given in the following table, where the 4 per cent nickel is 
compared with the 1.5 per cent and 4 per cent copper alloys. 
There is also given Hadfield's test of an alloy of 3.82 per cent 
nickel and carbon = 0.19 per cent (Inst. Civ. Engrs., March 28, 
'99). 



Unannealed 

4.00 Ni 

1.50 Cu 

4.00 Cu 

3.82 Ni 

Annealed : 

4.00 Ni 

1.50 Cu 

4.00 Cu 

3.82 Ni 



Elastic 
limit. 



67.000 

73.920 

105. 560 

62. 720 



57.000 
51.570 
53,570 
56.000 



Ultimate 
strength. 



76. 000 

77.300 

108.640 

82.800 



69. 000 
65. 720 
66.540 
73. 920 



Elastic 
ratio. 



0.88 
0.95 
0.97 
0.76 



0.83 
0.79 
0.81 
0.76 



Elongation 
per cent 



28.5 
23.5 
13.5 
30.0 



26.5 
29 2 
24'. 8 
35.0 



Reduction 

of area 

per cent . 



68.6 
66.9 
45.6 
54.0 



64.8 
63.1 
54.2 
55.0 



[61] 



26 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

The above values for the nickel alloys are less than are com- 
monly given to commercial materials where the carbon is a factor. 
The results are very comparable to those of the copper-iron series 
made under identical conditions. 

Waddell, in his paper, shows that there is an economic ad- 
vantage in the use of the nickel steels in comparison with the 
carbon steels ordinarily used, since their increased cost is more 
than offset by the less weight required, due to their increased 
strength. Our results and comparisons would indicate that the 
copper-iron alloys are also worthy of consideration and might be 
comparable to the nickel steels in use, even if the strength should 
not reach such high values as those of the nickel. Al^ per cent 
copper alloy is of promise, since the smaller percentage required 
and the lessened cost per pound of copper as compared with 
nickel would result in a lessened cost of construction, even if 
there is some increase in tonnage required because of the slightly 
decreased strength per equal weight. 



NICKEL-COPPER-IRON ALLOYS 

In view of the well known beneficial effect of the addition of 
nickel to iron, and because of the very great and rather unex- 
pected increase of tensile strength observed in our tests of the 
copper-iron alloys, due to the increasing percentage of copper, it 
was thought advisable in order to round out this research, to 
carry out tests on a series of alloys in which both nickel and 
copper were added to the electrolytic iron. 

The advisability of the investigation was prompted by several 
considerations — first, the benefits observed by the separate ad- 
ditions of nickel and copper might be coupled in their joint use ; 
second, the close relationship of copper, nickel and iron in chemi- 
cal and physical properties might lead to interesting results in a 
ternary alloy ; third, and this was the reason of greatest weight — 
there is on the market a nickel-copper alloy which would make a 
very desirable addition agent, in case the simultaneous presence 
of both copper and nickel give a tensile strength no less than 
that observed for the two separate alloys. 

We refer to Monel metal, resulting from the reduction of cer- 

[62] 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COPPER-IRON ALLOYS 27 

tain ores from which, by smelting alone, this alloy is formed. 
The main constituents are nickel and copper, in the proportions 
of about three to one, respectively. The material is, for the 
present at least, obtainable at a price about equal to that of 
copper, and very much below the cost of nickel. Here, then, 
is a means of getting nickel additions for steel, provided the 
copper carried does not neutralize the effect of the nickel. 
Some particulars regarding Monel metal are given below. 





Analysis. 






Nickel 


66.90 

24.35 
5.1X1 
2.18 


67 . 96 


Copper 


26.00 


Iron 


2.80 


Man .rane ->e 


1.62 









Mechanical tests gave for cast samples ultimate strengths of 
'30,400 and 35,000 lbs. per sq. in. For rolled samples the figures 
were — elastic limit 74,400 and 79,000 lbs. per sq. in., ultimate 
strength 100,000 and 104,000 lbs. per sq. in. 

Thus we see that the alloy has very good inherent mechanical 
properties, and the analyses indicate, besides the nickel and cop- 
per, only iron and manganese, and the latter is no detriment to 
steels. 

Examining the above table of analyses, we note a nickel-copper 
ratio of about 2y 2 or 3 to 1. The desirable addition of nickel to 
steels is from 3 per cent to 4 per cent. Our tests give as a de- 
sirable amount in the iron-copper series about 1% per cent of 
copper. Comparing these, we see here a ratio of about 2y 2 or 
3 per cent to 1, the Monel proportions. This striking analogy 
prompted the following series, in which the nickel was varied 
from 2 per cent to 6 per cent, with the copper in each case in a 3 
to 1 ratio. Unfortunately, at the time the alloys were made, no 
Monel metal was on hand, and they were made by adding the 
proper amounts of copper and nickel. The preparation of the 
alloys and test samples was in all respects in conformity with the 
methods described previously in this paper. 



[63] 



28 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

The series prepared was as follows — 



Bar. 


Per cent 
Nickel. 


Per cent 
Copper. 


174M 


o 
3 

4 
5 
d 


0.7 


174N 


1.0 


1740 


1.3 


1 74P 


l.d 


174R 


2.0 







Analyses have not been made to confirm these percentages^ 
However, in view of the close agreement in both the nickel and 
the copper series, the actual amounts are probably very close to* 
those indicated above. 

The whole series forged without difficulty at normal heats, and 
could be worked at low temperatures also, without indications 
of red shortness in any instance. 

For the tests, three samples were cut from each forged rod,, 
of which two were annealed at 900° C, and one left unannealed. 
Before annealing, the bars were machined to a diameter of 
about % inch over a free length of 2 inches. This work was done 
without difficulty in the lathe, except for Bars 174P. One of 
these samples was finished in the lathe, showing no material hard- 
ness ; the other two, however, had a hard seam which made it 
necessary to grind them to size. Subsequently, both bars showed 
flaws in the tests. 

Tensile Strength Tests 

The results of the tests are indicated in Table 5 and in Plates 
V and VI. In the plates the yield point, maximum stress, elonga- 
tion and reduction of area are plotted for each composition, the 
same designating symbols being used as noted in the previous 
tests. No effort has been made to draw a smooth curve follow- 
ing the points; instead, they have been connected by straight 
lines. This was done because of the small number of tests of 
each alloy. 

Unannealed 

But one bar of each composition was available for test in the 
unannealed condition. The results, however, are fairly consist- 

[64] 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COrPER-IRON ALLOYS 29 

<ent. and reference to Plate V shows an increase of ultimate stress 
and elastic limit with increase of the alloying elements, from 
79,200 to 99,700 and from 62,100 to 81,700, respectively, for the 
limiting alloys of 2Ni 0.7Cu and 6Ni 2Cu. The elongation and 
reduction of area fall off in accordance, but the extreme values 
of 22 per cent to 28 per cent, and 39.3 per cent to 58.8 per cent, 
respectively, are very good, and indicate an absence of any 
rjrittleness. Even the minimum addition of 2Ni 0.7Cu gives the 
very high values of elastic limit 62.100, ultimate stress 79.200, 
elastic ratio 0.78, elongation in 2 inches 26 per cent and reduc- 
tion of area 56.7 per cent. 

Annealed 

Two bars of each composition were annealed at 900° C for sev- 
eral hours. The tabulated results show very great consistency, 
not only for the two bars of each alloy, but also in the tendency 
of the increasing additions, best shown in Plate VI. 

Annealing has had but little effect on the bars, except at the 
lower end of the series, where it has decreased the elastic limit 
and ultimate strength, with a corresponding increase of elonga- 
tion and reduction of area. The values for the composition 2Ni 
7Cu are, however, still good, averaging in ultimate stress 
68 700. yield point 48.600, elongation 30 per cent, reduction of 
area 61.5 per cent. For the higher percentage additions the 
strengths have been increased by annealing and, as is shown most 
clearlv by the curves of Plate VI, the increase of strength hasT 
been uniform with increase of nickel and copper, and rises to the 
•extremely high values of elastic limit 83,200 and maximum stress 
103 700, for the highest percentage of 6Ni 2Cu. Elongation and 
reduction fall off with the increase, but here again we have values 
denoting good ductility, with no sign of brittleness. 

Comparisons 

In order to make direct comparison of the effects of the addi- 
tion of nickel and copper to iron in the ternary alloys with 
those of the separate additions of the two elements in the binary 
series Table 6 has been prepared. In this table the average yield 

[65] 



30 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

points, ultimate stresses, elongations and reductions of area are- 
noted in columns for the nickel-copper-iron, nickel-iron and cop- 
per-iron groups. The percentage compositions are given in the 
order of the ternary series; for the binary series the values are- 
those from Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4, corresponding to the percentages 
of the separate elements in the two columns of compositions of 
Table 6. 

The comparability of the copper-iron and nickel-iron groups is 
clearly shown, indicating the facts noted in the previous dis- 
cussion of the separate groups. The values, line for line, are not 
markedly different, even though we are comparing directly pro- 
portions of nickel to copper in the ratio of 3 to 1. 

The effect of the double addition of nickel and copper is most 
striking. In all but one or two instances the values for the 
ternary alloy exceed those for either binary series, at both the- 
elastic limit and the ultimate stress. And the effect is even more 
marked after the annealing of the bars. In fact, one might al- 
most treat the copper as so much added nickel, and compare bars 
on the basis of a certain nickel content on the one hand, against 
an equal quantity of nickel plus copper in the ternary alloy. 
And even this will not do for the higher percentages of the- 
nickel-copper-iron alloys, since, especially for the annealed bars, 
the strength of the ternary alloys is very markedly greater than 
any of the binary series. These high strength values are reached 
with practically no diminution of ductility, as is indicated by 
comparison of the figures for elongation and reduction of area. 

For those annealed bars corresponding to a composition of 4 
per cent nickel plus 1.3 per cent copper, which in the discussion' 
of the binary series we mentioned as the percentages in each 
case of greatest utility, we find the same relation holding as in 
the rest of the alloys. The values for the ternary alloy are : 
elastic limit 67,600, maximum stress 84,700, elongation 28 per- 
cent and reduction of area 55.6 per cent. For a binary 4 per 
cent nickel alloy the figures are: elastic limit 52,100, ultimate 
stress 70,100, elongation 28 per cent and reduction of area 66.7 
per cent; and for a 1% copper alloy: yield point 51,600, ulti- 
mate 65,700, elongation 29 per cent, reduction of area 63.1 per- 
cent. 

[661 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OP NICKEL-COPPER-IKON ALLOYS 3T 

These tests, therefore, while not as extensive as would be de- 
sirable to draw absolute conclusions, are sufficiently consistent 
to warrant the statement that for carbon-free materials, at least, 
the simultaneous presence in iron of nickel and copper does not 
destroy the good effects of the separate percentages of each ele- 
ment in a binary series. On the contrary, there is apparently an 
increase of tensile strength without loss of ductility, and no evi- 
dence of a brittle zone throughout the series. 

How far the percentages may be increased before there is evi- 
dence of brittleness or red shortness, is problematical. 

"While all of our alloys have been made of iron practically free 
from carbon, the combined influence of nickel and copper has 
appeared so marked as to warrant further investigation. It also 
appears highly important that similar study be made of the effect 
of these alloying agents upon commercial steels with their cus- 
tomary percentages of impurity. 



.-: 



[67] 



32 



BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 



Table 1. 
Tensile Strength — [ron Nickel Alloys — Unannealed 







Yield Point 
lbs/sq. in. 


Ultimate Stress 
Ids/sq. in. 


Elongation 
Per Ct/2' 


Reductic 
Area Pe 


IXOF 

a Ct. 


%N\ 


No. 


Max. 


Min. 


Av. 

57, 180 


Max. 


Min. 


Av. 


Max 

28.5 


Min. 
22.0 


Av. 

25.2 


Max 


Min. 


Av. 


0.25 


3 


66,600 


48,250 


75,600 


55,600 


66,730 


65.7 


50.0 


57.6 


0.50 


2 


58,200 


55,400 


56, 800 


70,700 


67,700 


69, 2C0 


21.5 


19.0 


20.2 


62.8 


58.8 


60.8 


1.00 


4 


58,200 


5L300 


56,820 


72.300 


66, 200 


68,320 


32.5 


18.5 


25.2 


68.5 


53.0 


60.9 


2.00 


4 


63,000 


55,000 


58,520 


74,700 


67,300 


70,350 


33.5 


17.0 


26.0 


65.5 


43.7 


60.7 


3.00 


5 


67,500 


56,700 


62,920 


79, 500 


67,900 


74,860 


29.0 


17.5 


24.5 


65.0 


62.4 


63.9 


4.00 


3 


68.900 


61,000 


65,000 


75,500 


75, 200 


75,670 


29.5 


26.5 


27.8 


68.8 


62.2 


66.5 


5.00 


4 


71,800 


59, 700 


64.030 


78,700 


73, 800 


77, 150 


32.0 


26.5 


29.2 


69.7 


59.7 


65.3 


6.00 


1 

4 






67,300 
70,080 






77,300 
85,500 






29.0 
25.2 






68.5 


7.00 


82,750 


63,200 


93, 100 


79,800 


28.0 


18.5 


66.1 


57.3 


61.0 


8.00 


4 


78,300 


65,700 


70,770 


98,000 


83, 900 


91,740 


31.0 


14.5 


22.6 


64.8 


49.1 


56.1 


9.00 


5 


113, 800 


69,800 


80, 760 


136,000 


97,700 


112,700 


24.0 


8.0 


18.4 


63.4 


45.4 


57.7 


10.0 


5 


141,400 


89, 400 


118,960 


172,900 


120,500 


153,360 


15.5 


2.0 


9.1 


53.7 


2.9 


29.0 


10.5 


3 


150,000 


104,900 


134,470 


188,800 


123.600 


166, 200 


10.0 


4.0 


6.2 


48.5 


3.5 


24.9 


11.0 


7 


166, 800 


123,400 


148, 240 


205,000 


165,200 


181,230 


9.5 


2.0 


7.0 


55.7 


1.4 


25.5 


12.0 


5 


168, 800 


116,700 


141, 140 


195. 800 


150,000 


178,420 


13.0 


2.5 


7.1 


43.5 


2.2 


23.8 


13.0 


4 


152,000 


116,500 


130, 620 


203,500 


129,500 


171.500 


10.5 


3.0 


6.9 


70.5 


9.8 


43.4 


15.0 


2 


133,500 


116,500 


125, 800 


211,000 


167,000 


184,730 


14.5 


4.5 


8.2 


58.7 


12.1 


34.1 


18.0 


3 


148, 800 


126,800 


138,170 


183,500 


176,000 


178,500 


13.5 


10.5 


12.3 


60.0 


38.5 


49.3 


19.0 


3 


149.000 


126,200 


134,730 


189.500 


175, 800 


183,270 


15.0 


13.5 


14.2 


59.6 


46.8 


53.1 


20.0 


1 
2 






115,500 
137. 700 






186,100 

180.850 






16.0 

11.0 




48.9 


25.1 


59.5 


21.0 


143,700 


131,700 


181,700 


180,000 


14.0 


8.0 


37.0 


25.0 


1 






56,400 






104,200 






45.0 






68.3 


45.0 


1 
1 






75,700 






82.000 
108,500; 






32.5 
26.5 






65 


50.0 










63 . 7 























[68] 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COPPER-IRON ALLOYS 



33 



Table 2. 
Tensile Strength — Iron Xickel Alloys— Unannealed 





Yield Point 
lbs/sq. in. 


Ultimate Stress 
lbs/sq. in. 


Elongation 
PerCt2". 


Reduction of 
Area Per Ct. 


%Ni. 


No. 


Max. 


Min. 


Av. 


Max. 


Min. 


Av. 


Max 


Min. 


Av. 


Max 


Min. 


Av. 


0.25 


2 


40, 200 


35.900 


38,050 


51,100 


49,600 


50,350 


36.5 


33.5 


35.0 


74.4 


65.0 


69.7 


0.50 


2 


43.300 


37. 700 


40,500 


59, 200 


51,700 


55, 450 


37.5 


35.5 


36.5 


70.3 


70.1 


70.2 


1.00 


3 


44, 400 


43. 300 


43, 830 


63,500 


57, 200 


59. 830 


36.0 


29.5 


33.7 


73.5 


66.5 


68.8 


2.00 


3 


51,200 


46. 400 


48,770 


66, 600 


63, 100 


64, 400 


39.0 


31.0 


34.2 


69.1 


58.6 


65.4 


3.00 


3 


61,100 


44,400 


55,400 


74,900 


65,700 


70,670 


30.5 


23.5 


27.5 


73.3 


62.8 


67.6 


4.00 


3 


57,800 


47,400 


52,100 


73.300 


67,900 


70, 070 


32.0 


22.5 


28.4 


70.3 


63.4 


66.7 


5.00 


4 


62. 800 


52. 800 


58.320 


77,100 


70, 750 


73,230 


32.5 


29.0 


31.4 


70.3 


64.5 


68.1 


6 00 


1 
3 






56,400 
58, 130 






75,300 
72,970 






29.5 
26.7 






64.2 


7.00 


5S.600 


57.300 


79, 100 


74,000 


31.0 


19.0 


67.5 


43.2 


58.5 


8.00 


3 


67, 250 


61,300 


63.320 


82,600 


73,400 


78,470 


33.0 


27.0 


30.2 


68.8 


58.3 


64.4 


9.00 


3 


74. 700 


70,750 


72, 180 


96, 300 


84,300 


89,970 


29.0 


21.0 


25.1 


65.4 


50.3 


60.2 


10.0 


3 


81,200 


66,400 


71, 800 


98,400 


80,700 


89,300 


24.0 


20.5 


22.3 


61.5 


54.7 


59.1 


10.5 


3 


71,900 


67.500 


69, 100 


92, 750 


86, 200 


89,450 


25.5 


22.0 


24.2 


61.0 


50.5 


57.2 


11.0 


5 


127,200 


69.800 


99, 160 


167.500 


95,750 


121,810 


23.0 


0.0 


11.6 


65.2 


0.0 


34.6 


12.0 


3 


111,300 


80.000 


97. 730 


142,400 


118, 200 


121,800 


16.5 


11.0 


14.5 


47.2 


8.3 


35.8 


13.0 


4 


140, 700 


114.800 


128, 050 


177,000 


148,500 


161.370 


14.0 


2.0 


6.8 


51.6 


1.4 


18.2 


15.0 


2 


142,000 


110,600 


! 126, 330 


180, 500 


126, 100 


153,300 


16.5 


4.5 


10.5 


66.5 


4.8 


35.8 


18.0 


2 


146. 900 


128,500 


137,700 


182, 100 


181,000 


181,550 


15.0 


! 5.0 


10.0 


58.9 


9.9 


34.4 


19.0 


2 


120. 800 


111,500 


116,150 


185,200 


176, 200 


180,700 


11.5 


j 10.0 


10.7 


45.6 


31.9 


38.7 


20.0 
21.0 


1 
1 






111,000 
122,600 






124.900 
193, 700 






21.5 
4.0 






1 62.5 


















4.2 






' 






1 






"% 



[69] 



34 



BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 



Table 3. 
Tensile Strength — Iron Copper Alloys — Uxannealed 



6 


02 


Yield Point 
lbs/sq.. in. 


Ultimate Stress 
Ids/sq. in. 


Elongation 
Per Ct./ 2" 


Reduction 

of Area 

Per Ct. 


+3 


C3 
C/3 


















ft 


























o 


o 

d 

3 




3 


> 
< 




a 


< 


30.0 


a 

i 

27.5 


28.5 


fcrH 
<3 




> 
< 


0.1 


56,600 


45,400 


52, 580 


64, 000 


60,300 


61,180 


70.9 


66.7 


69.2 


0.2 


5 


55,600 


50,700 


52, 930 


63,750 


60, 000 


61,470 


36.5 


24.5 


28.7 


73.2 


56.9 


67.2 


0.4 


2 


59,700 


56,100 


57,900 


67,250 


66,400 


66,825 


29.5 


23.0 


26.2 


72.1 


69.4 


70.7 


0.45 


2 


54, 800 


53, 100 


53,950 


62,700 


58,800 


60,750 


27.0 


24.0 


25.5 


67.7 


47.2 


57.4 


0.6 


o 


57,750 


51,600 


56, 170 


67,000 


64,750 


65,875 


27.5 


27.5 


27.5 


72.8 


71.5 


72.1 


0.8 


2 


55,500 


53, 800 


54,650 


67, 500 


65, 100 


66,300 


27.0 


25.5 


26.2 


72.5 


71.7 


72.1 


1.0 


5 


63,300 


56, 800 


61,290 


70, 800 


68,300 


71,380 


28.0 


21.0 


25.8 


72.0 


66.8 


70.3 


1.2 


2 


66, 300 


59,500 


62,900 


74,600 


72,300 


73,400 


28.0 


24.5 


26.2 


68.8 


64.5 


66.6 


1.4 


2 


68, 100 


67,300 


67,700 


78,600 


76,600 


77,600 


25.0 


18.0 


21.5 


70.0 


64.5 


67.2 


1.5 


3 


77,250 


70,000 


73,920 


78,800 


76, 200 


77,300 


26.5 


20.5 


23.5 


68.6 


64.5 


66.9 


1.6 


2 


75, 100 


73,300 


74,200 


82,750 


79, 100 


80, 925 


25.0 


25.0 


25.0 


66.6 


66.2 


66.4 


1.8 


2 


81, 100 


77,600 


79,350 


91,000 


86,000 


88, 500 


27.0 


24.0 


25.5 


66.3 


61.8 


64.0 


2.0 


3 


78,800 


73,400 


76,930 


89, 500 


82, 250 


87,010 


23.5 


17.5 


21.2 


59.5 


54.5 


57.0 


2.5 


2 


81,100 


81,000 


81,050 


89,400 


86,400 


87,900 


19.0 


18.5 


18.7 


62.8 


59.1 


61.0 


3.0 


6 


95, 100 


73,750 


86, 810 


105, 000 


83,750 


99. 640 


24.0 


12.5 


16.7 


65.6 


36.1 


53.8 


3 5 


1 
5 






75,400 
100,560 






82,300 
108,640 






16.0 
13.5 






72.7" 


4.0 


111,100 


92,700 


120,700 


99, 200 


17.5 


8.0 


52.3 


24.8 


45.6 


4.5 


2 


117,800 


106,400 


112, 100 


127,900 


115,500 


121,700 


17.0 


4.5 


10.8 


47.2 


3.9 


25.1 


5.0 


2 


119, 700 


113,000 


116,350 


123, 800 


120,000 


121,900 


15.0 


14.0 


14.5 


50.1 


48.3 


49.2 


5,5 


2 


114,700 


102, 300 


108,500 


122, 800 


105, 200 


114, 000 


15.5 


15.0 


15.2 


53.8 


46.6 


49.7 


6.0 


3 


124,200 


103,000 


113,400 


136,700 


107,500 


122, 900 


9.0 


4.5 


6.5 


36.5 


4.1 


20.3 


7.0 


2 


128, 800 


117,000 


122,900 


133, 800 


131,000 


132,400 


6.0 


2.0 


4.0 


12.9 


1.7 


7.3 


8 


2 


146,800 


133,500 


135, 100 


160,000 


137,500 


148,750 





























[70] 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COPPER-IRON ALLOYS 



35 



Table 4. 
Tensile Strength — Iron Copper Alloys— Annealed 



6 
a 


i 

a 

cc 


Yield Point 
ibs/sq. in. 


Ultimate Stress 
lbs/sq.. in. 


Elongation 
Per Ct/2" 


Reduction of 
Area Per Ct 


© 
o 

CD 


Max. 


Min. 


Av. 


Max. 


Min. 


Av. 


Max 


Min. 


Av. 


Max 


Min. 


Av. 


0.1 


o 


40, 750 


34,400 


35,570 


56,500 


51,600 


54,050 


35.0 


28.0 


31.5 


62.2 


58.3 


60.2 


0.2 


4 


36,850 


31,800 


33,660 


56,000 


52, 700 


54, 020 j 


36.0 


29.5 


34.1 


67.7 


62.7 


65.6 


0.4 


2 


35, 700 


35, 100 


35, 400 


53,700 


53,100 


53,400 


37.5 


34.0 


35.7 


72.1 


69.3 


70.7 


0.45 


2 


42, 250 


41,250 


41,750 


66,300 


64,600 


65. 400 


26.0 


25.0 


25.5 


53.6 


46.0 


49.8 


0.6 


2 


38,400 


38,300 


38, 850 


56,600 


56,500 


56, 550 


36.5 


32.0 


34.2 


69.0 


68.8 


68.9 


0.8 


2 


41,300 


40,700 


41,000 


59, 750 


57,400 


58,570 


34.0 


32.0 


33.0 


65.1 


64.7 


64.9 


1.0 


4 


54. 800 


46,400 


48, 920 


63,900 


61,100 


62.350 


34.0 


30.0 


32.6 


68.3 


66.1 


66.8 


1.5 


6 


58,100 


48, 100 


51.570 


70. 500 


62,100 


65. 720 


33.5 


22.0 


29.2 


65.1 


59.3 


63.1 


2.0 


6 


54,300 


49,400 


51.620 


65, 100 


60. 500 


63,200 


31.5 


27.5 


29.5 


68.1 


62.0 


64.4 


2.5 
3.0 


1 

7 






56. 200 
50,890 






73. 500 
62,360 






23.0 
26.9 






47.3 


53, 800 


48. 700 


67,600 


59. 000 


33.5 


10.5 


69.1 


46.3 


61.7 


4.0 


5 


57.100 


49.600 


53.570 


70,900 


62.700 


66,540 


28.0 


22.0 


24.8 


65.3 


39,3 


54.2 


5.0 


4 


57. 600 


50. 700 


54.460; 


74, 700 


62, 400 


68. 250 


29.0 


20.5 


24.2 


62.9 


29.1 


50.3 


5.5 

6.0 


1 
3 






54.800 
54,420 






69. 300 
64,530 






25.0 

20.8 







60.4 


55. 500 


52, 750 


65. 600 


62,500 


24.5 


18.0 


59.0 


39.2 


49.9 


6.45 


2 


55, 750 


54, 600 


55. 170 


69,700 


69, 200 


69. 450 


25.5 


16.5 


21.0 


48.1 


30.5 


39.3 


7.0 


2 


57, 150 


56. 750 


56.950 


70,900 


67-900 


69,400 


20.0 


14.0 


17.0 


40.8 


21.7 


31.2 


7.5 


1 






60. 200 






79,000 






16.5 






34.2 





















[71] 



36 



BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 



Table 5. 
Nickel-Copper-Iron Alloys — Tensile Strength 



Bar. 



Ni. 



Cu. 



Unannealbd. 
0.7 
1.0 
1.3 
1.6 
2.0 

ANNEALED. 

174m 2 0.7 



N 



174m 


2 


N 


3 


O 


4 


P 


5 


B, 


6 



R 



3 


1.0 


4 


1.3 


5 


1.6 


6 


2.0 



Diam. 


Area. 


Stress/ in 3 . 


o 


Re- 
duced 
Area. 


Re- 
duc- 
tion 

of 

Area 
% 


Yield 
point. 


Maxi- 
mum. 


0.372 


0.10S7 


62, 100 


79,200 


0.26 


0.0471 


56.7 


0.374 


0.1099 


67,400 


80,100 


0.28 


0.0452 


58.8 


0.373 


0.1093 


63,300 


85,700 


0.23 


0.0594 


45.7 


0.375 


0.1104 


66,500 


89,400 


0.22 


0.0670 


39.3 


0.374 


0.1099 


81,700 


99,700 


0.25 


0.0511 


53.5 


0.371 


0.1081 


48,400 


68,200 


0.30 


0.0391 


63.8 


0.373 


0.1093 


48,900 


69.200 


0.30 


0.0445 


59.3 


0.375 


0.1104 


56,400 


73, 600 


0.35 


0.0337 


69.5 


0.375 


0.1104 


57, 100 


71,400 


0.28 


0.0456 


58.7 


0.373 


0.1093 


68,600 


84, 700 


0.28 


0.0437 


59.9 


0.373 


0.1093 


66,600 


84,700 


0.27 


0.0531 


51.3 


0.375 


0.1104 


73, 100 


83,400 








0.200 


0.0314 


75, 200 


89, 500 








0.374 


0.1099 


83,900 


104, 800 


0.22 


0.0452 


58.8 


0.375 


0.1104 


82,500 


102, 700 


0.21 


0.0511 


53.7 



Remarks. 



Slight flaw. 



(Machined hard.) 
Broke at flaw j 

>■ Split. 
Broke at flaw ) 



Short longitudinal 
plit. 



[72] 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COPPER-IRON ALLOIS 



37 



Table 6. 
Comparison — Ikon-Nickel-Copper Alloys 



% 

Ni. 




Yield Point. 


Max. Stress. 


% 


Elong. 


[ 

% Red. 


% 
Cu. 


Ni-Cu 


Ni. 


Cu. 


Ni-Cu. 


Ni. 


0,,. 


6 

i 


Ni. 


Cu. 


■ 

6 

i 


Ni. 


Cu. 



















fc 








JL 






Unannealed. 














2 


0.7 


62,100 


58,500 


54,700 


79,200 


70,300 


66,300 


26 


26 


26 


56.7 


60.7 


72.1 


3 


1.0 


67,400 


62,900 


61,300 


80, 100 


74,800 


71.400 


28 


24 


26 


58.8 


63.9 


70.3 


4 


1.3 


63,300 


65.000 


67,700 


85,700 


75,670 


77,600 


23 


28 


21 


45.7 


66.5 


67j2 


5 


1.6 


66,500 


64,000 


74,200 


89,400 


77,150 


80,900 


22 


29 


25 


39.3 


65.3 


6674 


6 


2.0 


81,700 


67,300 


76,900 


99,700 


77,300 


87,000 


25 


29 


21 


53.5 


68.5 


57.0 


Annealed. 
























2 


0.7 


48,600 


48, 800 


41,000 


68,700 


64,400 


58,600 


30 


34 


33 


61.5 


65.4 


64.9 


3 


1.0 


56, 800 


55,400 


48,900 


72,500 


70,670 


62.300 


31 


27 


33 


59.1 


67.6 


66 v .8 


4 


1.3 


67,600 


52, 100 


51,600 


84,700 


70, 100 


65,700 


28 


28 


29 


55.6 


66.7 


63.1 


5 


1.6 


74,200 


58,300 




86,400 


73,200 






31 






68.1 




6 


2.0 


83,200 


56,400 


51,600 


103,700 


75,300 


63,200 


22 


29 


29 


56.2 


64.2 


64.4 



[73] 



38 



BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 



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Plate I 
Tensile Strength Iron-Nickel Alloys Unannealed 



eo 
?o 
eo 

% 

40 
30 
20 



S2 /* ss s& £o 



[74] 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COPPER-IRON ALLOYS 39 



200000 



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cos/. 



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80 000 



60000 



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«? -^ <r e s* ** /■+ '6 y 

Plate II 

Tensile Strength Iron-Nickel Alloys Annealed 



[75] 



40 



BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 



/<3oooo 



/20 OOO 



//O O00 



Z00000 



•9OOO0 



30000 

V— 

70COO 






&O00O 



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■+0OO0 



<3OO0O 















































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/ 2 a + *r <y 

Plate III 
Tensile Strength Ieon-Coppee Alloys Unannealed 



ao 



?o 



60 



SO 

o/ 
so 

40 



30 



zo 



/o 



[76] 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COPrER-IROX ALLOYS 



41 



/3000& 



//oooo 




Plate IV 
Tensile Strength Ibon-Copper Alloys Annealed 



[77] 



42 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

//oooo 



/oooaa 




30000 



%/v/ z 


3 


4- 


*T 


e 


% ca o.p 


/ 


/.3 

Plate V 


/.e 


* 



Tensile Strength Iron-Nickel-Copper Alloys Un annealed 



[78] 



BURGESS— STRENGTH OF NICKEL-COPFER-IROX ALLOYS 43 



//O0O0 







Plate VI 

Tensile Stbexgth Ikon-Nickel-Copper Alloys Annealed 



[79] 



Engineering Series 



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